Sharia, Philosophy and Ethics

Hadith criticism, aimed at examining the validity of the content of narrations, is one of the important hadith sciences for understanding hadith. This study examines Ayatollah Subḥānī’s approach to fiqh al-ḥadīth using a descriptive–analytical and library-based method. Ayatollah Subḥānī endorses the method of some early scholars regarding the critique of hadith content and proposes five general criteria—the Qur’an, the Sunnah, reason, history, and the consensus of Muslims—as standards for evaluating the chains of transmission of narrations. Based on these criteria, he subjects to critique certain narrations well known among Sunnis that have been reported by prominent transmitters. This method can resolve conflicting and anomalous reports and facilitate the identification of authentic narrations.

This study aims to design and explain the internal and hierarchical relationships among the dimensions of ethical governance based on the themes of Nahjul-Balagha using the Interpretive Structural Modeling approach. This applied qualitative study employed a two-stage design. In the first stage, qualitative content analysis was used to extract the dimensions and components of ethical governance from Nahjul-Balagha. In the second stage, Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) was applied to analyze the internal relationships among the identified dimensions. The expert panel consisted of 12 faculty members in public administration, Islamic management, political science, and Islamic studies, selected through purposive sampling. Data were collected using a structural self-interaction matrix and analyzed through the six-step ISM procedure. The results indicated that “wisdom-based governance” occupies the foundational level of the model and exerts influence over all other dimensions. “Virtue-based governance” and “rule-based governance” were positioned at the next level, demonstrating a reciprocal relationship and influencing “people-based governance” and “social ethical governance.” These dimensions, in turn, facilitate the realization of “service-based governance” as the ultimate outcome of the ethical governance system. The extracted model reveals that ethical governance in Nahjul-Balagha follows a coherent and hierarchical structure in which rationality and wisdom constitute the core foundation, enabling ethical conduct, social morality, and effective public service delivery, and offering a context-specific framework for improving governance systems.

The Holy Qurʾan and the hadith sources of both Shiʿi and Sunni Islam present the Prophet Muhammad as a truthful and comprehensive model for the individual, familial, and social dimensions of Muslim life. Despite the significant commonality in the two traditions’ approaches to depicting this image, there exists one very important difference: within the Sunni approach, certain reports can be found in which the Prophet’s image in the aforementioned domains is diminished. Employing a descriptive–analytical approach, the present study rereads and compares the authoritative hadiths of both groups in order to examine points of convergence and divergence in the prophetic image. The central question of the research concerns the reason for this difference between the two approaches, which is addressed through inquiries into how the Prophet is portrayed in Shiʿi and Sunni perspectives, the clarification of the differences, and an analysis of their causes. The findings indicate that in the shared approach of both groups—serving as the axis of convergence and a supra-sectarian model—the Prophet of Islam is portrayed, on the individual level, as the embodiment of patience, humility, honesty, and justice; on the familial level, as a compassionate and fair role model; and on the social level, as a pioneer in service to others and in the observance of human rights. The point of divergence, however, relates to a portion of Sunni narrations that present a different image of the Prophet, containing elements unbecoming of the station of prophethood and, in some cases, contrary to the principles of infallibility and even degrading and shameful. In analyzing the reason for this difference, the study arrives at the divergent views of the two groups regarding the successors of the Prophet Muhammad: Shiʿism, with its belief in the infallibility of the Imams, exhibits a high degree of coherence with an exalted image of the Prophet, whereas Sunnism, by accepting the succession of non-infallible figures, is compelled to lower the image of the Prophet Muhammad so as to avoid an evident inconsistency.

The family occupies a central position in Islamic law, and the Qur’an approaches marital conflict through a reform-oriented and preventive framework. Rather than denying the occurrence of spousal disputes, Qur’anic teachings recognize them as a natural aspect of marital life that can be managed through ethical and social mechanisms. Qur’an 4:35 establishes arbitration as a primary means of resolving serious marital discord by appointing two arbiters from the families of the spouses, emphasizing reconciliation before any consideration of dissolution. In contrast, the Iraqi Personal Status Law, despite its general inspiration from Islamic jurisprudence, structures the resolution of marital disputes primarily through judicial intervention, rendering arbitration a dependent and largely formal procedure under judicial authority. This study adopts an analytical–comparative approach to examine the divergence between the Qur’anic model of arbitration and the court-centered framework of Iraqi family law. The findings indicate that the dominance of adversarial judicial procedures and evidentiary formalism has weakened reconciliation efforts and contributed to the increase of judicial divorces. The study concludes that restoring arbitration to its independent and reform-oriented role, while limiting judicial intervention to cases of necessity, may enhance the alignment of Iraqi family law with the objectives of Islamic law and contemporary social needs.

Following the Arabs’ domination over the Iranians and their migration to Iran under the order of the second Caliph, Umar (634–644 CE), they observed the differences between the urbanized culture of the Iranians and their own nomadic desert culture. This comparison generated a sense of inferiority among them. With the establishment of the Abbasid rule (750–1258 CE), which marked the beginning of the Golden Age of the Arab Caliphate, Arabs residing in Iran increasingly adopted Iranian cultural patterns by marrying Iranians, changing their names, and adopting Iranian clothing. By employing writers and religious scholars of the time, they undertook efforts to distort Iranian history, literature, and culture. In a defensive strategy, they attributed their own immoral and inhumane practices to Iranians, such as the belief in two creator gods or marriage with close relatives, including sisters and mothers. However, according to the Qur’an (7th century CE), it was the Arabs themselves who engaged in such practices even during the time of the Prophet Muhammad (570–632 CE) in the city of Medina, practices which were later prohibited, although they reportedly continued in conquered cities thereafter. Unfortunately, the fabricated and unreliable accounts of authors affiliated with the Islamic Caliphate persisted and became foundational sources for later writers, especially European scholars such as Arthur Christensen (1875–1945), who attributed these allegations to Zoroastrians and the religion of Zarathustra. In reality, it is argued that consanguineous marriage was a practice associated with Arabs rather than with Zoroastrians.

Intellectual deviation constitutes a major challenge for contemporary societies, particularly within religious and cultural contexts, due to its profound impact on identity formation, belief systems, and social behavior. This phenomenon extends beyond mere diversity of opinion or simple cognitive error and is deeply rooted in the destabilization of theoretical foundations and the erosion of criteria for distinguishing truth from falsehood. The present study aims to examine the role of theoretical foundations in preventing intellectual deviations, with particular emphasis on the intellectual framework of Ayatollah Misbah Yazdi. Employing a narrative review methodology and a descriptive analytical approach, the study systematically analyzes Misbah Yazdi’s views in the domains of epistemology, ontology, anthropology, and axiology. The findings indicate that his emphasis on guided rationalism, critique of epistemological relativism and secularism, theocentric understanding of existence, recognition of human fitrah and free will, and insistence on stable moral values together form a coherent and effective framework for intellectual prevention. Moreover, the concepts of religious authority and doctrinal education emerge as complementary mechanisms that reinforce intellectual integrity within society. The study concludes that this integrated theoretical model not only demonstrates strong internal coherence but also possesses significant applicability to contemporary social conditions, offering a strategic foundation for cultural and educational policymaking aimed at sustainable prevention of intellectual deviations.

This study examines a comparative analysis of Merleau-Ponty’s theory of embodiment and Montessori education, with an emphasis on social responsibility in children. The aim of this study is to analyze and compare the two theories regarding how sensory experiences and bodily interactions influence social development and responsibility. This research employs a descriptive–analytical method with a comparative approach to examine the relationship between these theories in the context of social responsibility. The study was conducted based on purposive sampling of authoritative library sources and scientific articles relevant to the research topic. Research data were collected through qualitative content analysis and analyzed from texts and sources related to the theories of Merleau-Ponty and Montessori. The findings of this study indicate that both theories emphasize the importance of sensory and bodily interactions in social development and the cultivation of children’s social responsibility. Merleau-Ponty emphasizes the role of bodily experience in the formation of ethics and responsibility, whereas Montessori fosters independence and responsibility through structured educational environments and practical activities. The integration of these two theoretical perspectives in the design of educational programs can contribute to more comprehensive social development in children. For the successful implementation of these approaches, attention to children’s individual differences and the creation of appropriate learning environments in educational settings are essential.

In today’s world, where ethical and social challenges have become increasingly complex, educational systems require programs that not only focus on the transmission of knowledge but also prioritize the cultivation of moral virtues and social skills. Teaching ethical behaviors to individuals is of great importance and represents one of the effective approaches for developing social skills and strengthening social interactions among members of society. The present article examines the views and perspectives of two of the most prominent philosophers of the modern Western era, namely the theories of Georges Bataille and Emmanuel Levinas, regarding ethical issues. Among the comparative study methods, George Bereday’s method—comprising four stages of description, interpretation, juxtaposition, and comparison—has been employed (Bereday, 1964). The analysis of the findings indicates that, in general, both philosophers regard the human being as an ethical entity, and every ethical individual exists in relation to the “Other” and to the “community.” However, they also differ in certain respects; Levinas argues that without the existence of the “Other,” ethics loses its true meaning, because ethical concepts are among those that acquire meaning and reality within the human relationship with the “Other,” and he places greater emphasis on the positive aspects of human nature, particularly moral and social dimensions. In contrast, Bataille emphasizes the individual dimension of the human being in relation to ethical issues.